The Role of Women and Their Development in South Africa Essay

The Role of Women and Their Development in South Africa - Essay Example As the discussion stresses women's contribution to South Africa economic and political arena are increasingly being recognized, but more opportunities are needed for women to fully develop and demonstrate their full potential in this male dominated society. There are still many obstacles women have to overcome before substantial progress can be made on their behalf. In this paper we are going to test a hypothesis that in order for the women of South Africa to develop and take on a more hands on approach toward their future and their country's future they must demand and be given the right and opportunities afforded their male counterparts.This essay discusses that since the dawn of 20th century women of South Africa have been really active in the political and economic life of the country. They were active participants in different kinds of organizations including liberation movements which highlighted their importance in South Africa development. Trade union movements and their stri kes were the road to politicize women.  From 1920s women started to organize, by 1930s women trade unionists led the opposition. With the development of economy in the 1930s and 1940s women became urbanized which gave them power to organize other women and black industrial workers. Though their efforts were crippled by the legislation, they still led illegal strikes.  The union movement served the ground for women to arise as political leaders.

Early Civilizations Matrix Essay Example for Free

Early Civilizations Matrix Essay Affirmative Action The purpose of this paper is to review the subject of affirmative action, and the policies that go along with it. The paper will be recommending to a board of directors that their business implement affirmative action policies. This argument will be supported by points and facts that are in favor of the implementation. It will also fairly discuss points against the implementation of affirmative action. The paper will cover points about how affirmative action policies relate to compliance with the equal opportunity laws. Before getting to far ahead, it is important to make sure that there is a valid understanding of what affirmative action actually is, and what its policies stand for. What is affirmative action? Affirmative action means that steps are taken to help increase the representation of women, and other minorities in areas like education, employment, and business. These are all areas from which they have typically and historically been excluded. It is when these steps involve preferential treatment or selection based on gender, race, and ethnicity then the concept of affirmative action becomes controversial (Affirmative Action, 2001). History of affirmative action In 1961, then President John F. Kennedy issued executive order 10925 against American Lexicon. The order gave the first mention of affirmative action.  The purpose of the order was to end discrimination within the business (Nittle, n.d.). Next, three years later in 1964, The Civil Right Act came out. The goal of the Civil Right Act of 1964 was to stop employment and public accommodations discrimination (Nittle, n.d.). Following the Civil Right Act of 1964, President Lyndon Johnson, who took office after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, issued executive order 11246. This order required federal contractors to practice affirmative action, to help develop diversity within the workplace and help end race based discrimination, and other forms of discrimination (Nittle, n.d.). Before these amendments were signed into action, you had other key events that took place as well. For example, the case of Brown v Board of Education. This case was about an African American girl who wanted to attend a white public school, and was denied admittance. This case helped overturn a prior case Plessy v Ferguson. Plessy v Ferguson stated that a separate but equal America was constitutional (Nittle, n.d.). Brown v Board overturned that case by ruling that discrimination is a key aspect of racial segregation. Which meant that it violated the 14th Amendment (Nittle, n.d.). This decision started the countries goal to promote diversity in schools and various other places (Nittle, n.d.). This was a very important legal, as well as ethical case. It helped kick start the changes to peoples thought processes. Why affirmative action? Now that a bit of history on affirmative action has been covered, it is important to look at why affirmative action policies should be put into action at your company. Affirmative action would be very beneficial to your company for many reasons. It allows for a more diversified workplace, it is a way to allow all races to have equal rights, it shows that everyone has the ability to be great at their job, that people can be more productive by sharing various thoughts, plans, and ideas for the betterment of not only the company, but themselves as well, regardless of their gender, race, or ethnicity. This company should hire people based on things like their level of experience and skill, and whether they have the aspects necessary for that  position. The hiring process should not be based on the persons racial or ethnic background, or whether they are a male or a female. People should be comfortable enough that when they apply for a position within your company they do not worry about whether or not they are being discriminated against. All that should matter is that they have the skills necessary to do the job to the best of their ability. Not whether or not they are the proper gender or if they are the right ethnicity. If someone applies for a job at your company, and they feel they may have been discriminated against, and then they ask you about it, if you dont give them a reasonable response or answer them correctly it can cause problems for the company. Whether it be through long bitter court battles, or just the company gains a bad name for even potentially being prejudiced or biased. Employment discrimination against women and minorities is something that has gone on for a very long time. Government reports show that the pay, as well as job opportunities for minorities is smaller than that of white or Caucasian ethnicity ( Bohlander Snell, 2007). If your company implements affirmative action, it can be beneficial from the outside and inside as well. One thing that needs to be done to begin the action, is to develop a plan. Your company needs to have a written statement showing commitment to the idea of affirmative action. You should look at where the company stands in terms of women and minorities that you have employed. By doing so, it will allow for you to see where changes, if any, need to be made. Once you see where the improvements and changes are, you need to take the right steps to make sure these changes are made. While making these changes, you have to make sure that no other race or gender within your employee base was mistreated, or undervalued in any way due to the affirmative action plan. Equal employment opportunity law According to the Equal Employment Opportunity Law, all businesses have an obligation to uphold. They are not to judge a potential employee based on ones race, gender, age, etc. This is a very important aspect of affirmative action. You have to make sure that your company understands and follows the  policy ( Bohlander Snell, 2007). The court system is always interpreting the employment law. If changes are made, then it is the manager of your companys responsibility to change the companys employment guidelines to follow the court ruling (Bohlander Snell, 2007). To help make sure that business do comply with the changes, and anti discrimination laws, the Equal Employment Opportunities Council was established to monitor that the guidelines are being followed (Bohlander Snell, 2007). Benefits of affirmative action There are many benefits for your company to implementing an affirmative action plan. The employees themselves will benefit for instance, because minorities that are employed within your company have the chance to advance up the career ladder, and gain opportunities for promotions that they may not have had a chance of getting before. Your company shouldnt be made up of one race, one ethnicity, or one gender because you think that one is better than the other. If a person has or gets a job, it should be due to their qualifications and abilities to do the job correctly. Not based on race or gender. The downfalls of affirmative action With almost any argument in favor of something, you are going to have opinions refuting the ideas. Some believe that affirmative action leads to reverse discrimination. That instead of being hired for their qualifications and skill, that they are hired based on religion, race, gender, etc. Opponents feel that it can make people turn against one another. Preventing the downfalls of affirmative action The cons of affirmative action can be avoided as long as your company takes the proper steps. The company needs to look for the best people for the unfilled positions, and do the proper training if needed. To help prevent your employees from feeling as if the only reason they got the job with your company was due to their gender or race, make sure that you let them know they were hired because they had the needed experience or qualifications and therefore they were the best match. It is important to make sure that your company sticks to the plan that was laid out in the beginning, to the affirmative action plan that was developed. You watch over all of your employees, and not just those who are impacted more by the plan, the work environment at your company should stay sustainable and comfortable for all employees. Conclusion Affirmative action would be a great idea for your company. The purpose of this presentation was to show both the pros and the cons of implementing affirmative action within your company, which is hopefully what was done. The main thing to remember here is that the benefits to implementing affirmative action, strongly outweigh the pitfalls. Also, the opposition to the plan can be avoided by following your action plan, and the steps provided for avoidance of those downfalls. It is hoped that you will choose to use the affirmative action policy within your company, as it is something that will most definitely help and payoff in your companys future. References: Bohlander, G. W., Snell, S. A., (2007). Managing human resources (14th ed.). Florence, KY: Thomson Learning Higher Education. Nittle, N.K. (n.d.). Key events in affirmative action history. Retrieved from http://racerelations.about.com/od/historyofracerelations/a/TheFiveLandmarkEventsWhichLedtoAffirmativeActionsRise.htm Affirmative action. (2001). Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/

The Marketing Strategies Implemented By The Airline Easyjet Marketing Essay

The Marketing Strategies Implemented By The Airline Easyjet Marketing Essay This report has been conducted in order to clarify the marketing strategies implemented by the airline easyJet in order to gain a competitive edge over its rivals in the market for low-cost aviation. We researched in depth the European budget airline industry and looked at the various strategies used by easyJet, along with its main rivals. The main findings from our study suggest that easyJet has been very successful in its approach to its marketing campaigns, as it has built and sustained a strong image over the course of its operations at the top of the airline industry. The company however, must continually seek out new strategies and ideas as the industry becomes increasingly more competitive. Introduction EasyJet was established in 1995 by Stelios Haji-loannou and operates as a no frills low-cost airline, aiming to under-cut its rivals, such as, BMI Baby, Ryanair, and FlyBe. They all operate on a similar business model to that of the highly successful USA southwest airlines. The competitive advantage of budget airlines is maintained by achieving low operating costs, increasing revenue and using new economy technologies such as the Internet to sell their product. The low-cost airline sector currently has an 8.65% share of the total airline market with easyJet attaining 3.76% (Belfast Telegraph, 2004). EasyJet achieved a profit of  £62.2m in 2004 and announced major expansions into Central/Eastern Europe in an effort to apply their winning formula to a wider proportion of the airline industry (EasyJet, Company Overview 2005). The project will consult easyJets marketing and competitive environment to ascertain the position they hold in the industry, thereby constructing an analysis of the various strategies easyJet implements to achieve a competitive edge over their rivals. EasyJets Marketing and Competitive Environment EasyJets marketing environment will involve a PEST analysis, highlighting major influences upon the low cost airline industry. The competitive environment analysis will signify as Sanderson and Luffman confirms, current strategies of competitors, the potential of new competition to enter the market, the behaviour of suppliers and buyers, and the availability of substitute products (2001, p.20). Introduced in the form of a SWOT analysis. Marketing Environment Political In 1990 the European deregulation of commercial aviation coincided with the expansion of the low cost airline industry. The low cost carriers in the industry were able to take advantage of the relaxed laws and expand their operations. Economic Mercer Management Consulting (2002) reported that the low cost airline market conforms to the criteria of three components (Figure 1). Firstly, it provides a simple product consisting of no seat reservation, free seating, and adequate in flight service. They are a genuine no frills airline with a simple product offered to the market. Webster (2004) noted easyJets ability to maintain a high degree of customer focus through a new, user friendly website with an improved booking process. Figure 1: Source Impact of Low Cost Airline Mercer Management Consultancy 2002 Secondly, it is apparent that the low cost airline market is characterised by: mergers and acquisitions; the expansion of existing low cost airlines and finally, market exits as a result of bankruptcy e.g. Debonair. Furthermore, the low cost carriers operate short haul, point to point traffic with short frequencies, pursue aggressive marketing campaigns and deal with secondary airports. EasyJet, however, has differentiated in this respect by dealing with major hub airports e.g. Gatwick. Finally, the industry operates a low cost ethos, which is maintained by lean sales, high productivity of resources, low maintenance costs and low wages. The price of oil which is currently 50% more expensive than a year ago is a cause of concern for the low cost airline industry. Chief Executive of easyJet Ray Webster said: The price of fuel remains high and volatile. In spite of this, operating margins for the period are expected to be broadly in line with last year. The problem of high oil prices may be a cause for concern for smaller carriers who are not able to maintain low cost bases. Social The low cost carriers position their product to leisure travellers and non business travellers (See Figure 2), however easyJet has differentiated by targeting the business and leisure segments. This behavioural segmentation creates a more dynamic edge in comparison to their competitors who solely focus on leisure travel. Thus, easyJet must ensure that its strategy is tailored to a wider market. Walton (2005) confirmed that easyJet was presented as a European low cost airline with a current reading of 26 million passengers in 14 key countries. It has 190 routes to 58 airports and 163 million people live within one hour of easyJets airports. Figure 2: Source Low Cost Airlines Gaining Momentum in Europe Schneiderbauer, D. Fainsilber, O. (2000) Technological Low cost carriers have the ability to maintain a high degree of customer focus through user-friendly websites with improved booking processes. These websites have the capability of charging bookings with greater ease and utilising an easy to use fare finder to obtain the cheapest fares. Selling tickets via the technological medium of websites and hence by having no travel agents, they avoid paying agency commissions. Competitive Environment Strengths EasyJets core strengths according to Morgan Stanley relate to their ability to provide a simple fare structure with good value for money and maintain low unit costs. Furthermore, they have developed a strong brand through serving the Swiss and UK market and through strong corporate culture, whilst developing a broad multi base network. Weaknesses EasyJets weaknesses have become apparent in the fiscal year of 2003, whereby crew costs rose by 68% to  £97 million which accounted for 13% of operating costs. Additionally, advertising costs also increased by 43% to  £28 million, accounting for 3.7% of total costs and crucially, easyJets airport charges had surged to 103% to a staggering  £149 million. Opportunities The BBC (2005) highlighted easyJets acknowledgement of the opportunities that can become apparent as a results of the fierce competition from Ryanair. The new demand from business customers has forced the need for the provision of certain facilities such as airport lounges for the frequent flyer; one way of looking at the practicalities of developing better services. Meeting the demands of lifestyle changes is crucial and with the ever growing new routes such as to Rome and Berlin, this will help retain some competitive edge. Threats Some of the main competitors are Ryanair, Bmibaby and FlyBe. Ryanair were initially founded in 1985 and then re-launched in 1990-91. Their aim was to offer fares 50% or lower than those offered by the big flag airlines, specifically as a low-fares, no-frills operation. Mintel (2003) reported that Ryanair generated  £190 million profit before tax. They had acquired other rivals such as KLM and Buzz, hence in the 2004 3rd quarter results they stood in first position for passenger growth, with the lowest fares and lowest costs in Europe. It was apparent that recently, they have continued to maintain their position at the top of the industry. Ryanair have responded aggressively to easyJets home markets. They have lowered their prices in the newest markets such as Knock, Cork and Shannon. They are building up pressure in Liverpool and Luton with further rises in operating flights and with the development of new competitors such as Jet2 and Monarch, easyJet are facing potentially turbulent times. EasyJets Marketing Strategies to Achieve Competitive Advantage An analysis of easyJets marketing strategies, namely; product differentiation, mergers and acquisitions, location, the website, advertising and marketing campaigns and the Airline TV documentary will now be performed to depict how easyJet gains a competitive advantage in the low cost airline industry. The consumer matrix (Bowman and Faulkner, 1997) details perceptions that customers have with regard to the product or service offered to them and the prices charged. Applying this to easyJet we can guestimate the general perception generated by the market. EasyJets flights offer the consumer value for money as the benefits gained from the transaction relative to price appear favourable in comparison to their competitors. Perceived price Hi Hi Perceived use value Lo Lo West Heterogeneous views, with regard to the demands for the service, indicate that, one service meets all demands may lead to mistakes in the competitive strategy. Within the airline segment there will be consumers who are price sensitive and thus demand the low-cost alternative. Hence, easyJet are following the customer matrix price strategy in order to attain sustainable competitive advantage (maintaining benefit whilst reducing price): Location One of easyJets successful marketing strategies implemented is the location element of the destinations to which it runs flights. In order to gain a competitive advantage over its competitors, easyJet flies to all the main business and leisure airports in Europe so that customers do not then have to then transfer a long distance to their final destination. Other firms in the industry such as Ryanair for example, although attempt to compete at a price level with easyJet, do not operate nearly as efficient a route map. Arguably such rivals can only offer the low-cost advantage through flying to more remote destinations. EasyJet operate to the highest level of efficiency at the airports themselves with rapid turnaround times and can thus fully utilise their fleet system, whilst running extra flights for passengers. EasyJet has greatly expanded its hub airports, to now having bases in all parts of the UK and more recently, integration into European airports. Advertising and Marketing Campaigns Through utilising to the full the marketing channels available, easyJet has been able to build and sustain a successful corporate image from the birth of the company 10 years ago. EasyJet advertisements can be seen everywhere, in cities all over Europe from giant billboards to public transport buses. The company has made sure that wherever there are potential customers for the airline, their presence is made known through advertising offers on flight costs, launch of new routes or merely to express why one should chose to fly with easyJet. In a highly competitive market, easyJets marketing team has had to sustain a strong advertising strategy and look to implement new marketing ideas so that they are not losing out to other airlines. In more recent years, they have taken much greater advantage of online advertising and with the increasing personal use of the Internet, this has considerably enhanced easyJets consumer reach. Although national media is an available marketing option, easyJet adopt a regionalised European approach to advertising (Dixon, 2005). Much of easyJets marketing campaigns have concentrated on making an impact at a local level and has proven to be a more personalised strategy, which has enabled them to adopt their methods of marketing to the regional customers they are addressing. Airline TV documentary series A marketing strategy implemented by easyJet which has contributed to their success, was the fly on the wall documentary series Airline broadcasted in January 1999. It was aired across the nation on prime time TV channels and was nominated for programme of the year in 2001 (BBC, 2005). Although the programme depicted easyJet in a bad light in certain instances, for example, refusal to allow passengers to board the planes, it acted as positive publicity for easyJet. EasyJet promoted themselves as a cheap and reliable airline, in a market where there were previously few competitors going for the low cost image. This clearly shows that according to Miles and Snows theory (1978), easyJet were acting as a prospector, as they were the first movers in the market place to try and unlock the low cost airline niche market. Website EasyJets website acts as a main distribution channel for e-ticketing with all flight information also accessible to customers online, thus reducing material costs. EasyJets website can be viewed in 15 languages in attempt to make their flights accessible to a wider audience. Sophisticated yield management systems have been implemented in order to maximise seat revenue which is seen as the largest area of competitive advantage (Jobber, 2004). The use of new economy technologies has improved flows of information, allowing easyJet to update prices immediately, thus maximising flight profitability. Porters theory in relation to easyJet clarifies that they are adopting a cost leadership strategy which is portrayed to customers via the cheap fares offered online. However, although technology provides advantages in terms of cost reductions for easyJet, its competitors have followed suit and have established websites of their own, offering consumers extremely competitive rates in comparison to easyJet. Consequently, easyJet needs to constantly adapt it strategies in order to retain a competitive advantage. Product Differentiation Porters theory details two basic types of competitive advantage: lower cost and differentiation (OShaughnessy, 1996). EasyJet achieves a competitive advantage by following the cost-leadership approach, transferring this low-cost advantage to the consumer in the form of low price. EasyJet have made notable attempts to make their product stand out from its low-cost airline competitors. McDaniel (2000) argues that a products differentiating feature acts as a competitive advantage and there will be no long-term survival unless it has one. Also, it is evident that easyJet is generally the trend setter for differentiation in its market. CNN reports that EasyJet has recently relaxed hand luggage restrictions which are 40% bigger than the current allowance (EasyJet, 2004). EasyJets no weight restriction for cabin baggage and flexible ticket scheme which can create earlier flight standbys highlights their ability to pursue consistent innovation for their customers. This may be an attractive prospect for business passengers and differs from other low-cost airlines, which maintain limits. Furthermore, they have implemented a 100% self check in with plans for self-handling to minimise disruption. EasyJet has also deviated from the typical pricing methods used by other airlines by implementing inclusive pricing instead of prices that exclude booking charges and taxes. This decision came after the Air Transport Users Council had highlighted consumers dislike of airlines trying to con them with low fares that do not exist, by offering a low fare up front, only to add a host of spurious taxes and charges later on in the booking process (Internet Travel News, 2005). On Thursday 1 August 2002, easyJet and Go completed a merger deal worth  £374 million. This represented a form of horizontal integration and indicated easyJets desire to increase its market share. By December 2002 easyJet had reached two further important milestones in its merger with Go by announcing a single Air Operator Certificate (AOC), and the launch of a unified sales channel. The integration costs incurred amounted to  £7.9 million, approximately  £3 million less than forecasted (EasyJet Financial report 2002/2003). According to Stelios, the deal contributed significantly to our objective to become Europes leading low-cost airline, by strengthening our position in important target markets(Financial Times, 2004). The Go acquisition was a major step away from easyJets own strategy of growing organically. By operating almost as a monopolist in the low fare airline market, the merger gave easyJet the option to raise prices and restrict supply in order to create supernormal profits. Additionally, the merging firms were able to exploit economies of scale to reduce cost. The purchase of Go has given easyJet a major presence at Stanstead, home of both Ryanair and KLMs buzz. Prior to the acquisition, their networks barely competed and they had rarely even flown out of the same airport. The following data was compiled a year after the deal completion which illustrates the success of the merger between EasyJet and Go: Airbuses willingness to support the costs of introducing the new aircraft type to the fleet far outweighed the costs of the complexity of running a dual fleet. The A319 provides a number of advantages for easyJet. It offers passengers more comfort, safety, travel quality, higher reliability and the opportunity for lower fares with its unbeatable operating economics. Additionally, the sizing of the A320 family allows easyJet to graduate up to the 180 seat A320 and even 220 seat A321, if they choose to do so in the future. Mathur and Kanyon (2001) proposed a matrix (see below) that identifies and classifies types of competitive positioning which creates differentiation. EasyJet, in terms of support differentiation, provide a differentiated service by offering many prime routes to major airports such as recent expansions at Gatwick airport (and other European airports) which shifts the focus to high yield traffic while abandoning economic and operative advantages of secondary aiports. In terms of merchandise differentiaton, easyJet provide variables such as self check in kiosks, ease of use for the websites and booking of tickets, unrestricted baggages restraints; such features of differentiation helps the consumers to make repeat purchasers with easyJet. Furthermore, easyJet use high quality Airbus A319s which provides customers with a range of benefits as listed above. The purpose of this report has been to assess how EasyJet has utilised successful marketing strategies through the various channels available, in order to establish and maintain a dominating position in the low-cost airline industry. One of the great business success stories of the past five years has been the launch of the easyJet airline company (Dixon, 2000). To facilitate our analysis of this objective, we not only researched EasyJet and its marketing campaigns adopted over the years, but also identified the main strategies used by the other leading competitors. EasyJet has constantly tried to identify itself to its consumer base as the best form of budget travel in Europe. The company recognised the demand for this form of travel and its marketing strategies have been primarily geared around providing more efficient, low-cost flights, whilst maintaining as a high a quality of service as possible. Through their clear, effective website, they have strived to make it increasingly easy for customers to deal with the company, whilst strategically positioning their advertising to be directed at the market served. Policies for expansion have been the driving force behind easyJets significant growth and have enabled them to eliminate key rivals from the industry. However, with the emergence of new, strong competitors in the industry and the increasing demand for low-cost travel, it is evident from the report that easyJet must remain innovative in its marketing and allocate sufficient resources to securing a long-term position as the market leader. Recommendations The low-cost airline industry is reaching maturity. Miles and Snows theory of the Four Business Strategies would suggest easyJet should move towards being an Analyzer from a Prospector. This therefore takes into account that easyJet needs to concentrate on maintaining its established market leadership. With regards to enhancing their market power both long and short-term, easyJet should look to move into newer mediums for advertising, primarily using television broadcasting. EasyJet need to further consider developing the levels of efficiency and motivation within their wide employee base and by fomenting such other dimensions of this business, will help maintain another key element which still, other rivals fail to recognise. Word Count: 3,195

Ackoff Management Misinformation Systems :: essays research papers

â€Å"Ackoff Management Misinformation Systems† Ackoff identifies five assumptions commonly made by designers of management information systems (MIS). With these assumptions, Ackoff argues that these assumptions are in most cases not justified cases, and often lead to major deficiencies in the resulting systems, i.e. "Management Misinformation Systems." To overcome these assumptions and the deficiencies which result from them, Ackoff recommends that management information system should be imbedded in a management control system. The Ackoff Assumptions are that: (1) Due to lack of relevant information, most managers operate under this deficiency; With the first assumption and contention, I’d have to disagree. According to Ackoff, it seems that only certain information is useful, while the other is useless and it overburdens the managers. Therefore, top management usually receives filtered input that subordinates have carefully screened several times. However, top management needs more information and data, more qualitative input, and less formal analysis than it receives. Sometimes, the useful information might seem useless at one time, may become more important at another time. Therefore, I believe that all information be readily available for the manager to proceed forward in a timely fashion. (2) The manager needs the information he wants; I agree to a certain aspect to this ideology. Without a doubt, without the proper information, the manager is useless because they are not able to direct their workers in the right direction. People working for the manager tend to require more information from the top. More important, they need a general and, sometimes, a specific sense of direction and support. Without a proper direction, all people involved will concurrently feel underutilized, and will try to gather all information, relevant or irrelevant and fill up their work time, without achieving any goals. (3) A manager will improve his decision making, if he has the information he needs, This is a straight-forward logical agreement with the author. It is obvious that if the information is available, the manager will be able to make a better judgment. Without proper information from above, the people working for the manager will be lost. On the other hand, if the manager has the information need to complete the task, then the objective will be solved in a short period of time, with everyone contributing in a positive way. (4) A better communication between managers will improve organizational performance; I agree with the statement above on the basis that communication is the most important thing when it comes to working in unison.

Alcohol Related Problems

IntroductionAlcohol related problems is one of today’s contemporary issues, as there are studies that suggest that due to alcohol related problems there are various impacts that it can have to an individual, and it can include social harms and any antisocial behaviour, such as alcohol fuelled violence. This literature review will explore the academic readings, that help assist identity key issues relating to a criminology perspective of alcohol related problems. Ergo, based on past research from the academic readings this literature review will explore prevention strategies that help reduce social harm to the individual and the community, and also the consequences that alcohol can lead to. Also, this literature review, has identified gaps within the academic sources. The gaps that all the sources have in common would be, the use of education and intervention for the individuals on alcohol related problems to control criminal behaviours before it is too late and also, the lack of numeric statistics and evidences supporting the academic sources.Benefits of the Literature ReviewBy analysing the academic sources, it can assist in gaining proper knowledge of the effects that alcohol can lead to and the prevention strategies that are able to prevent and reduce social harm to the individual and community from the misuse of alcohol. Ergo, this literature review will benefit ‘assignment three’ as it is able to give a proper understanding of ‘alcohol related problems’ within areas, such as Manly.Consequences of Alcohol Related ProblemsThe Australian Medical Association (2012) mentions that most Australians, especially the youths within society are drinking in a way that puts their own health at risk, which causes further harm to themselves and others’ around them. Morgan and McAtamney (2009), Wells and Graham (2003), Dearden and Payne (2009), Dawe, Harnett and Frye (2008) and the Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2001), all hav e a common idea of the types of consequences that involve the use of alcohol related problems. The similarities of these  literature articles has shown that the consequences, mainly involve alcohol related violence within the community and within the family. Alcohol-related crime and disorder can have a huge impact on the perceptions of crime and safety among the broader community, ergo making the community fearing for their safety (Morgan&McAtamney, 2009). Based on the literature sources, the main consequences of alcohol related problems involve the following:Firstly, according to the 2007 national drug strategy household (AIHW, 2008), it highlights that ‘thirteen percent of Australians are made to feel fearful by someone under the influence of alcohol' and ‘almost five percent of Australians aged above fourteen years old have been physically abused by someone under the influence of alcohol'. However, not all alcohol related violence are all physical, statistics have shown that ‘one in four Australian victims of alcohol related violence have been verbally abused and neglected' (Morgan&McAtamney, 2009).Furthermore, alcohol is the main reason of the occurring domestic violence and child abuse and neglect within the Australian household (Dawe, Harnett&Frye, 2008). This can be supported by Dube et. al. (2001) stating that child abuse from those parents who misuse or abuse alcohol are more likely to be subjected to various forms of physical and verbal abuse. From the research, it provides an evidence that from the mistreatment of children, especially those who were victims of physical abuse and neglect, are more likely to offend later in their lives due to the idea of the victims having a high exposure to alcohol in their lives and create a cycle of alcoholic problems.Secondly, Dearden and Payne (2009) and Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2001) has suggested that, violence that is fuelled by the alcohol consumption can lead to homicide. Ac cording to the National Homicide Monitoring Program’s database, it stated that ‘around half of forty-seven percent of all homicides within Australia in 2000-2006 were alcohol related' (Dearden&Payne, 2009). Thus, most of these homicides have concluded that both the offender and victim were intoxicated. In contrast, Wallace (1986) believes that alcohol is not the direct link to homicide, but is in fact encourages the offender to offend. Findings have shown that there are still on-going debates on whether or not alcohol consumptions are the direct cause  of homicide or if it is just the aggression of the offender from consuming alcohol. In regards to Wallace (1986) their concluding arguments are very weak and bias as there are no formal evidence supporting their claim. However, either way as a consequence, alcohol consumption could lead to homicide.Prevention strategies on Alcohol Related ProblemsAccording to the following literature, it has shown that there have been m any crime prevention, which are usually enforced by the law enforcement and criminal justice system. All of the following academic readings share similar notions of the alcohol related crime prevention and policy makings to be able to reduce social harm involving the individual and their community.Policy making by stakeholders, involve the access and availability of alcohol can help reduce the alcohol related problems occurring to the individual and their community. Ergo, the Liquor Act legislation prohibits the supply of alcohol to individuals under the age of 18 years old (Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy, 2001; McMurran, 2012). Thus, alcohol suppliers are to thoroughly check identification of the individual and if the individual who is under the age of 18 years old, holds and shows fake identification, law enforcement may be involved, as strict penalties for infringements apply, which could result in going to court or receiving a fine. In contrast,Trim, Leuthe and Chassin (20 06) argues that not all alcohol purchases are made by those who are under 18 years old but the individuals may ask an adult; who could be a relative or a stranger, to help them obtain the alcohol.Furthermore, the findings have proven that individuals can find a way around policies, in regards to the access and availability to alcohol, however, there are no evidence to future validate this argument. In addition, to make this approach to be more effective in the future, there should be surveillance cameras outside the store to watch out for any negative activity. Also, to decrease the curiosity of alcohol for children, law enforcement and education should work together in preventing alcohol related problems and stop the cycle. For example, the use of ‘Healthy Harold' during school, to educate the children on the consequences of alcohol.Similarly, Robert, Ammerman, Peggy, Ott, Ralph and Tarter (1999) and Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2001) agree that in regards to the dev elopment of police initiatives; random breath testing is a successful crime prevention in road crashes, as it motivates the individual to drink responsibly. This can be supported by the reduction of the alcohol involved crashes on the roads (Homel, 1988). From the readings, this is usually because the individuals do not want to be caught and be financially and emotionally strained. However, this policy is through police discretion and power. It is up to the law enforcement agencies, in regards to whether or not the individual should be arrested or fine (McMurran, 2012).Thus, this type of prevention strategy needs to be committed by the law enforcement in order to keep the road safe from those under the influence of alcohol, or else there would be no use for the policy and instead create more chaos on roads. Hence, to avoid the lack of commitment from the law enforcement agencies there should be proper training and licences to protect members of the community from alcohol related pro blems.ConclusionThis literature review has highlighted the consequences of alcohol and the strategies to help prevent and reduce social harm to the community and the individual. Through the findings of the crime prevention of alcohol related crimes, it has shown it is not as effective. Thus, it has shown that there needs to be a new approach on alcohol related problems. Ergo, any changes involving the criminal justice strategies are most likely to succeed. Furthermore, it is important to apply formal and informal controls in regards to the misuse of alcohol and problematic behaviours. Overall, there were gaps within the academic readings used in this literature review, nevertheless, it has given a better understanding of different point of views, in regards of alcohol related problems in a criminology perspective. ï » ¿Alcohol Related Problems IntroductionAlcohol related problems is one of today’s contemporary issues, as there are studies that suggest that due to alcohol related problems there are various impacts that it can have to an individual, and it can include social harms and any antisocial behaviour, such as alcohol fuelled violence. This literature review will explore the academic readings, that help assist identity key issues relating to a criminology perspective of alcohol related problems. Ergo, based on past research from the academic readings this literature review will explore prevention strategies that help reduce social harm to the individual and the community, and also the consequences that alcohol can lead to.Also, this literature review, has identified gaps within the academic sources. The gaps that all the sources have in common would be, the use of education and intervention for the individuals on alcohol related problems to control criminal behaviours before it is too late and also, the lack o f numeric statistics and evidences supporting the academic sources.Benefits of the Literature ReviewBy analysing the academic sources, it can assist in gaining proper knowledge of the effects that alcohol can lead to and the prevention strategies that are able to prevent and reduce social harm to the individual and community from the misuse of alcohol. Ergo, this literature review will benefit ‘assignment three’ as it is able to give a proper understanding of ‘alcohol related problems’ within areas, such as Manly.Consequences of Alcohol Related ProblemsThe Australian Medical Association (2012) mentions that most Australians, especially the youths within society are drinking in a way that puts their own health at risk, which causes further harm to themselves and others’ around them. Morgan and McAtamney (2009), Wells and Graham (2003), Dearden and Payne (2009), Dawe, Harnett and Frye (2008) and the Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2001), all have a common idea of the types of consequences that involve the use of alcohol related problems.The similarities of these  literature articles has shown that the consequences, mainly involve alcohol related violence within the community and within the family. Alcohol-related crime and disorder can have a huge impact on the perceptions of crime and safety among the broader community, ergo making the community fearing for their safety (Morgan&McAtamney, 2009). Based on the literature sources, the main consequences of alcohol related problems involve the following:Firstly, according to the 2007 national drug strategy household (AIHW, 2008), it highlights that ‘thirteen percent of Australians are made to feel fearful by someone under the influence of alcohol' and ‘almost five percent of Australians aged above fourteen years old have been physically abused by someone under the influence of alcohol'. However, not all alcohol related violence are all physical, statistics have sh own that ‘one in four Australian victims of alcohol related violence have been verbally abused and neglected' (Morgan&McAtamney, 2009).Furthermore, alcohol is the main reason of the occurring domestic violence and child abuse and neglect within the Australian household (Dawe, Harnett&Frye, 2008). This can be supported by Dube et. al. (2001) stating that child abuse from those parents who misuse or abuse alcohol are more likely to be subjected to various forms of physical and verbal abuse. From the research, it provides an evidence that from the mistreatment of children, especially those who were victims of physical abuse and neglect, are more likely to offend later in their lives due to the idea of the victims having a high exposure to alcohol in their lives and create a cycle of alcoholic problems.Secondly, Dearden and Payne (2009) and Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2001) has suggested that, violence that is fuelled by the alcohol consumption can lead to homicide. Acco rding to the National Homicide Monitoring Program’s database, it stated that ‘around half of forty-seven percent of all homicides within Australia in 2000-2006 were alcohol related' (Dearden&Payne, 2009). Thus, most of these homicides have concluded that both the offender and victim were intoxicated. In contrast, Wallace (1986) believes that alcohol is not the direct link to homicide, but is in fact encourages the offender to offend.Findings have shown that there are still on-going debates on whether or not alcohol consumptions are the direct cause  of homicide or if it is just the aggression of the offender from consuming alcohol. In regards to Wallace (1986) their concluding arguments are very weak and bias as there are no formal evidence supporting their claim. However, either way as a consequence, alcohol consumption could lead to homicide.Prevention strategies on Alcohol Related ProblemsAccording to the following literature, it has shown that there have been many crime prevention, which are usually enforced by the law enforcement and criminal justice system. All of the following academic readings share similar notions of the alcohol related crime prevention and policy makings to be able to reduce social harm involving the individual and their community.Policy making by stakeholders, involve the access and availability of alcohol can help reduce the alcohol related problems occurring to the individual and their community. Ergo, the Liquor Act legislation prohibits the supply of alcohol to individuals under the age of 18 years old (Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy, 2001; McMurran, 2012). Thus, alcohol suppliers are to thoroughly check identification of the individual and if the individual who is under the age of 18 years old, holds and shows fake identification, law enforcement may be involved, as strict penalties for infringements apply, which could result in going to court or receiving a fine.In contrast,Trim, Leuthe and Chassin (2006) argues that not all alcohol purchases are made by those who are under 18 years old but the individuals may ask an adult; who could be a relative or a stranger, to help them obtain the alcohol. Furthermore, the findings have proven that individuals can find a way around policies, in regards to the access and availability to alcohol, however, there are no evidence to future validate this argument.In addition, to make this approach to be more effective in the future, there should be surveillance cameras outside the store to watch out for any negative activity. Also, to decrease the curiosity of alcohol for children, law enforcement and education should work together in preventing alcohol related problems and stop the cycle. For example, the use of ‘Healthy Harold' during school, to educate the children on the consequences of alcohol.Similarly, Robert, Ammerman, Peggy, Ott, Ralph and Tarter (1999) and Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2001) agree that in regards to the develop ment of police initiatives; random breath testing is a successful crime prevention in road crashes, as it motivates the individual to drink responsibly. This can be supported by the reduction of the alcohol involved crashes on the roads (Homel, 1988). From the readings, this is usually because the individuals do not want to be caught and be financially and emotionally strained.However, this policy is through police discretion and power. It is up to the law enforcement agencies, in regards to whether or not the individual should be arrested or fine (McMurran, 2012). Thus, this type of prevention strategy needs to be committed by the law enforcement in order to keep the road safe from those under the influence of alcohol, or else there would be no use for the policy and instead create more chaos on roads. Hence, to avoid the lack of commitment from the law enforcement agencies there should be proper training and licences to protect members of the community from alcohol related problem s.ConclusionThis literature review has highlighted the consequences of alcohol and the strategies to help prevent and reduce social harm to the community and the individual. Through the findings of the crime prevention of alcohol related crimes, it has shown it is not as effective. Thus, it has shown that there needs to be a new approach on alcohol related problems. Ergo, any changes involving the criminal justice strategies are most likely to succeed.Furthermore, it is important to apply formal and informal controls in regards to the misuse of alcohol and problematic behaviours. Overall, there were gaps within the academic readings used in this literature review, nevertheless, it has given a better understanding of different point of views, in regards of alcohol related problems in a criminology perspective.

Deviant Behavior / The Social Learning Theory Essay

A person would be considered to be acting in a deviant manner within a social setting if they are violating the established social â€Å"norm† within that particular culture. What causes a human being to act in certain ways is a disputed topic among researchers. There are three types of researchers that have tried to answer this question. There is the psychological, biological, and the sociological approach. With all of the studies that have been performed, not one group has provided an exact reason or explanation as to why people behave in a deviant manner. Although sociologists’ theories have not been disproved as often as the psychologists’ and biologists’ theories because their experiments are too hard to define and no one definition for deviance is agreed upon by all experimenters (Pfuhl, 1980, p. 40), the sociological perspective has provided the most information concerning why people exhibit deviance. The definition of deviant behavior is considered to be broad with multiple viewpoints which makes it complicated and difficult to find an accurate answer (Pfuhl, 1980, p. 18). This is why this topic is so important in the study of sociology. Sociologists have more information, and therefore may be closer to finding the best explanation for the major contributing factors in explaining the development of deviant behavior(s) within a certain culture. For this reason, the main focus of this paper is based on the sociological stand point of deviance based upon the Social Learning Theory and social reaction(s) to deviant behavior(s). According to The Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977), one person can learn simply by observing the behavior of another person (DeLamater, 2011, p. 10).  The family is the major link to socialization in one’s environment (Four Categories of Family Functions that Seem to Promote Delinquent Behavior, p. 1). In the family, divorce, conflict within family, neglect, abuse, and deviant parents are the main determinates for the offspring’s actions or behavior. Early researchers first thought parental absence only affected girls and members of the white population. Modern research finds that the lack of supervision or support of the child’s needs is a link to delinquency in any race. It occurs more in single parent homes because they have a more difficult time providing supervision and support. Poverty can be another reason within the family for conflict because it can lead to both family breakups and delinquency. Children need close and supportive relationships with parents. The inability to talk to parents also promotes deviance within the home. The child may feel that they need to obtain attention elsewhere, thus acting in a deviant manner if their parents are not there to provide guidance and support. Parents can prevent this type of behavior by being competent, providing non-aggressive punishment, and by being supportive in order to build the child’s self-confidence. Family conflict has more damaging effects on children than divorce, whereas parental death has less impact than divorce (Four Categories of Family Functions that Seem to Promote Delinquent Behavior, p. 2). When a parent dies a child at least knows that the parent did not want to leave on his own terms and probably did not inflict any abuse to his or her psyche before the parent passes away. Also, if a child still has contact with both parents after a divorce the less likely the child will feel neglected and feel the need to react with deviant behavior. Family size also leaves an adolescent without the necessary attention they need as an individual. Middle children are more likely to exhibit deviant behavior because they go unnoticed more than their younger or older siblings. The legal definition of abuse and neglect varies from state to state but does, in any form, create serious consequences for behavior. This abuse and/or neglect occurs in sustained patterns, which causes stress, poor self-esteem, aggressiveness, lack of empathy, and fewer interactions with peers. Child abuse is defined as any physical or emotional trauma to a child for which no reasonable explanation is found. Neglect refers to the deprivation that children suffer at the hands of parents (Deviance: Behavior that Violates Norms, p. 1). Such components that apply  to these definitions are non-acciden tal physical injury and neglect, emotional abuse or neglect, sexual abuse, and abandonment. Over one million youth in America are subjected to abuse each year. In terms of sexual abuse, one in ten abused are boys, and one in three of them are girls. It is unknown how many cases go unreported in any area of abuse or neglect each year. From 1980 to 1986, the number of reported cases rose sixty percent. The most common reason for parents abusing their children is due to a learned function they acquired from their parents. This tendency to pass down deviant behavior through generations is a cycle of family violence (Lemert, 1972, p. 48). Parents are unable to separate childhood traumas from the relationships they have with their own kids. Another unhealthy thing to learn from a parent is the feeling of isolation from family and friends. This is more common is single parent families and lower socioeconomic classes. If a person is living in a lower class, single-parent environment, that p erson is at a real disadvantage. It may be because they do not feel they are good enough to belong in the realms of society. Delinquency is when a child acts out their hostility towards the parent or abuser in a deviant manner (Lemert, 1972, p. 59). Parents need to provide adequate guidance and punishment to their child when the child exhibits deviant behavior; however, the problem is that some parents do not see or choose not to see the child’s deviant behavior. Other influences outside of the home can cause a person to act in a deviant manner. Peers, media images, and other people in society establish what the â€Å"norm† should be in a given area or culture. What is considered â€Å"normal† can be relatively different in various areas of the world. What is considered deviant can be changed over time once society as a whole feels more comfortable and accepting of the certain type of deviant behavior. For instance, only certain people once obtained tattoos and now it is a current fad to cover the entire body with them. Media portrays models and famous figures with unusual tattoos, piercings, and certain attitudes as â€Å"normal† and acceptable to teenagers in today’s culture. There are more devil-worshipers, or so they portray, in the music business. This implies to children that it is cool to wear the black clothes and act somewhat gothic. This is just one example. It may depend on the person as to how much their  peers and media influence them to go against the â€Å"norms†. Once a person is labeled deviant, they usually continue to respond to society as if they are deviant. This aspect of deviance is called The Labeling Theory. There are sociologists who seek to find why certain acts are defined as criminal, and others are not. They also question how and why certain people become defined as a criminal or deviant. In this realm of study, the acts that they perform are not significant to the criminals, but it is the social reaction to them that is (Becker, p. 1). The response and label from other individuals in society, such as peers, are how the individuals view themselves. When a person performs a deviant act, they are then labeled by society and separated from the â€Å"normal† people. Such labels in today’s society are whore, abuser, loser, etc. These people are then outsiders and associate with other individuals who have been cast out of the societal â€Å"norm†. When more and more people within the â€Å"norm† of society think of these people as deviant, then these people performing deviant behaviors think they are deviant too. The Labeling Theory states that once they feel this way, they will continue to behave in the way society now expects them to behave. The question is, are humans genetically predisposed to deviant behavior, or do the people around them influence them to act in this way? The sociological perspective is the factor that has been the least questioned explanation even though it does not always give the exact justification for the origin of the deviant behavior. Sociologists learn from cultural influences in lieu of biological or psychological biases. Rather than concern with behavior from certain people, sociologists view deviance as a behavior engaged in a person by having a common sociocultural or the same experiences within a culture. Edwin H. Sutherland explains that deviant and non-deviant behaviors are learned in the same ways through his Differential Association Theory. Sutherland demonstrates that criminal behavior is learned from intimate groups by the means of communication. When they learn how to act in a deviant manner, they know what is involved in, and what drives a person to commit a crime. This does vary in people who have different characteristics and learning abilities. However, one group may view certain behavior as deviant, i.e. shopl ifting, while others may view shoplifting as justified because businesses charge too much money. The  viewpoint of each group develops by observing others and imitating their behavior, otherwise known as The Social Learning Theory (DeLamater, 2011, p. 386). Whatever the cause of deviant behavior, it is a major problem within society. The exact determinates that contribute to a person’s deviant behavior are controversial. It may be from inherited traits, behavior learned from society and family, or even a combination of the two. The social interaction certainly leads to The Labeling Theory and how individuals may strive to meet the expectations of their â€Å"labeled† identity. However, The Social Learning Theory seems to best explain the major environmental influences on children by family members and peers which contribute to the development of deviant behavior and society’s reaction to various behaviors that are considered to be deviant. Bibliography Becker, H. S. (n.d.). Overview of Labeling Theories. Retrieved from http://home.ici.net/~ddemelo/crime/labeling.html DeLamater, J. &. (2011). Social Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Deviance: Behavior that Violates Norms. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.elco.pa.us/Academics/Social_Studies/Care/ITTP_2/Chap.8.html Four Categories of Family Functions that Seem to Promote Delinquent Behavior. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.mpcc.cc.ne.us/aseffles/delcrslides/ch.09/tsld012.html Lemert, E. M. (1972). Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Pfuhl, E. H. (1980). The Deviance Process. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.